香京julia种子在线播放

Bird specimens were recovered from the Wildlife Ecology, Rehabilitation and Surveillance Centre (CERVAS), which is part of the ICNF Serra da Estrela Natural Park, located in Gouveia (Portugal). The birds died under natural conditions in this rehabilitation centre, following veterinary checks and then frozen in order to preserve for scientific research after death. Information regarding the bird species and date of death used were collected by Dr. Ricardo Brandão from CERVAS.

The selection of birds tried to represent species commonly associated with Neanderthal diets in the Iberian Peninsula (e.g., Blasco et al., 2014, 2016; Martínez Valle et al., 2016; Nabais et al., 2023). However, given that the obtainability of wild animals depends on their natural death and availability, the species used were the nearest equivalents to those discovered in archaeological sites—i.e., taxonomically close relatives, similar in size to other bird species consumed by Neanderthals. Hence, the species used were Corvus corone (carrion crow; Birds 2 and 4), Columba palumbus (common wood-pigeon; Bird 5), and Streptopelia decaocto (Eurasian collared-dove; Birds 1 and 3), with a total of five individuals used in the study (Table 1; Supplementary material 1). Bird specimens were let to defrost 24 h prior the start of the experimentation so that carcasses could resemble their original raw state and appearance.

The birds were photographed and measured prior to processing for experimental purposes (Table 1; Supplementary material 1). The archaeological experimentation was conducted at ICArEHB research centre (Faro, Portugal), in a controlled research environment designed to replicate Neanderthal techniques for the treatment and culinary preparation of avian species. Consequently, birds were prepared, cooked and processed according to archaeological evidence and ethnographic data (e.g., Osgood, 1971; Nicolaysen, 1980; Laroulandie, 2001; Blasco and Fernández Peris, 2009). To acquire a better understanding regarding diverse potential Neanderthal consumption practices, two individuals were butchered uncooked (S. decaocto and C. corone, corresponding to Birds 1 and 2), whereas the other three were butchered after cooking (S. decaocto, C. corone, and C. palumbus; or Birds 3, 4, and 5). All avian specimens started by being manually defeathered and then, in the case of the raw individuals, immediately butchered. The other three specimens were cooked by roasting in direct contact with the coals whenever the temperature reached 500°C; they were cooked defeathered and complete, without being broken before heat exposure (Figure 1). Temperature was permanently measured using an Infrared Thermometer HS 960D. Complete birds were initially roasted with their bellies on the coals for 4 min, and then turned around and cooked for another 3 min. Cooking durations were determined empirically, based on the assessment of the birds' meat's doneness, which occurs quickly when directly exposed to the coals.

The butchering techniques employed used manual handling, and movements such as flexion, twisting, pulling and overextension. Whenever needed, such actions were aided by an experimental flint flake (Supplementary material 1). The latter was produced by ICArEHB students during their practical sessions in lithic technology. Two of us (AR and MN) processed one raw bird specimen each (Birds 1 and 2, respectively). MN processed one roasted animal (Bird 5), and AR processed two (Birds 3 and 4). After processing, each bird's bones were placed in separate laundry bags to soak in Neutrase enzyme solution. This facilitates tissue removal within a stable 34–55°C range over 3–12 h (Simonsen et al., 2011). Post-enzyme action, bones were cleaned, brushed, and sun-dried to deactivate the enzymes.

The birds' remains underwent macroscopic and microscopic analysis (using a Hirox HR 5000E in the LARC-Archaeosciences Laboratory, in Lisbon) to document modifications on bone surfaces. This included recording all marks such as cuts, their distribution, location, and orientation, as well as patterns of breakage like fragment size, fracture outlines, angles, and edges. Given that most avian skeletal remains unearthed from Palaeolithic contexts predominantly consist of appendicular elements (e.g., Mourer-Chauviré, 1983; Ericson, 1987; Blasco et al., 2016; Romero et al., 2017; Rufà et al., 2018), this pilot-study focused on these anatomical components, specifically the bones associated with the wings and legs.

All experimental actions were recorded with a Nikon D5300 camera, an iPhone 11 and an Android Pixel 4a, and the video files are archived at the CORA repository (https://dataverse.csuc.cat/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi%3A10.34810%2Fdata1216) for future reference and potential replication of this experimentation.

Finally, it is important to acknowledge that the experimental setting may not fully replicate the exact environmental conditions experienced by Neanderthals, and our butchering experience may not mimic the exact movements used by these early humans. Therefore, such limitations should be considered when interpreting our results.

Use-wear analysis refers to the study of traces present on the artefact's surfaces that result from the wear produced by human use. It takes into account the fact that repeated actions performed with a stone tool leave micro- and macroscopic evidence of friction. It heavily relies on experimental reference collections that aim to replicate past potential uses and understand the formation process of identifiable diagnostic traces, to which the archaeological material can be compared.

Based on experimental replication, researchers showed that these modifications are known to be the result of the interaction between different surfaces (i.e., tool and worked material), which causes a gradual removal or deformations of the natural surface. The character of the discipline is based on a pattern recognition method when assessing the typology, location, and distribution of the different types of wear traces (Semenov, 1964; Tringham et al., 1974; Kamminga, 1979; Keeley, 1980; Plisson, 1985; Gonzales Urquijo and Ibanez Estevez, 1994; Andrefsky, 2005; McPherron et al., 2014; Claud et al., 2019a,b). Comparing the use-wear observed on replicated tools used in experimental actions to use-wear found on archaeological artefacts, wear patterns found on artefacts have been successfully classified. It is a key discipline and currently the most reliable method for obtaining direct evidence on tool use.

Successful interpretations of stone tool use depend on as many lines of evidence as possible and must rely on the observation of both micro- and macroscopic use-wear. The present study combines the analysis of macroscopic features (scarring, edge rounding, and fractures) seen with low magnification with microscopic use-wear (such as polishes and striae) observed with high magnification microscopy and relies on comparisons with extensive experiments that have been previously completed on a wide range of rocks, including flint, and are broadly recognised as reliable references (Keeley, 1980; Gonzales Urquijo and Ibanez Estevez, 1994; Claud et al., 2019a).

The experimentally made flint flake (Supplementary material 1) used for processing the uncooked birds was submitted to macro- and microscopic analysis of tools' edges and probable use zones in LARC-Archaeosciences Laboratory (Lisbon, Portugal).

Firstly, the flake was cleaned in order to remove any grease and residues that could adhere to it. Subsequently, the tool's edges and surfaces were examined under low and high magnifications by combining optical bright field reflected light and digital microscopy: the flake was first examined using an Olympus SZX12 and a Hirox HR 5000E, in order to macroscopically identify the used zones. Edges and surfaces were then analysed at high magnification with a Microscope Olympus BX60 for the observation and identification of the microscopic use-wear features indicative of specific materials worked and actions performed.

All birds underwent initial manual plucking of feathers from the head, neck, and body by gripping the feathers at the skin joint and pulling them sharply away. Subsequently, the processing of both raw and roasted animals involved a similar sequence of actions. Manual handling was used for all, but roasted animals disarticulated more readily, without the need of a cutting tool. The birds' heads were manually detached by twisting and pulling them free from the cervical vertebra. The chest skin was then slit longitudinally with the flint flake along the sternum's centre line. Flesh was cut away and internal organs were carefully detached and removed intact.

Wings were detached by twisting, and for raw birds, a flint flake was used to sever tendons, which is particularly evident on the cuts found on the scapula, coracoid and humerus (Figure 2, Table 2). Regardless of whether the bird was raw or roasted, the scapula and coracoid stayed attached to the axial skeleton, separating from the wing bones. The humerus was disarticulated from the radius and ulna through flexion in a direction opposing the joint's natural movement. In some cases, this action resulted in minor fractures at the distal end of the humerus (Figure 2A–F) and the proximal end of the ulna (Figure 2A–I, L). Furthermore, the distal humerus occasionally exhibited a peculiar type of perforation (Figure 2B–D). These observations are consistent with the wrenching, squashing and notching previously documented by Laroulandie et al. (2008). A similar flexion motion was used to separate the radius and ulna from the carpometacarpus, resulting in wrenching observed on the proximal or distal joints of the bones (Figure 2B–E, G).

The legs were removed in a manner akin to the wings, using twisting motions and applying flexion and overextension to disarticulate the femur from the pelvis. On uncooked animals, tendons were cut using a flint flake, leaving cut marks on the proximal and mid-shaft of the femur (Figure 2A-N, P). Disarticulation from the tibiotarsus was achieved by flexing the femur against the joint's natural direction and through overextension, as well as with the aid of the flint flake resulting on marks on the proximal shaft of the tibiotarsus (Figure 2B–H, I). A similar technique was employed to separate the tibiotarsus from the tarsometatarsus without the necessity of using a flake. Flexion and overextension movements did not seem to cause any marks on the surface of leg bones, except for the wrenching identified on the roasted Columba palumbus' proximal tibiotarsus (Figure 1B, Table 2).

Through macroscopical observation, carrion crows were found to have minimal meat, in contrast to collared-doves, and wood pigeons in particular, which offered generous portions of breast filets and a significant amount of meat surrounding the femur. However, it is important to consider that the birds used were rescues and, as such, the meat yield from these animals might not accurately reflect that of birds in prime health. In roasted specimens, the meat fell away effortlessly, with no need for flint flakes. Conversely, processing raw specimens needed such tools for cutting the tendons, leaving cut marks on the long bones. Longitudinal cuts aimed at defleshing were made primarily on the humerus and femur, yet these did not imprint on bone surfaces. Therefore, only the transverse marks, indicative of tendon cutting or joint disarticulation, were observable.

A total of 265 bird bone remains, corresponding to complete and fragmented wing and leg elements, from five distinct individuals were collected following the experimental and cleaning procedures. Animals that underwent processing in their raw state retained the entirety of their skeletal representation, while those that were roasted exhibited a predisposition to bone fracture and loss (Table 2, Supplementary material 2). The roasted dove (Bird 3) presented a skeletal loss of 57.1%, corresponding to a total of 29 remains that disappeared during burning. Conversely, the roasted crow (Bird 4) had an increase in the number of remains, due to higher bone breakage (Figure 1, Supplementary material 2). Bones subjected to heat tend to fracture more readily even in the absence of burning marks. Observations indicate that the content of the inner cavity of the bone also combusts internally increasing its fragility. This phenomenon is particularly evident in the wing bones of the carrion crow and the wood pigeon (Figure 1A), where a dark longitudinal stain is commonly found inside the long bones.

Evidence of charring was found on nearly all the bird bones subjected to heat (Figure 1; Table 2). Exceptions included the two humeri of the Columba palumbus, the scapula, ulnar carpal, and femur of the Streptopelia decaocto, and eighteen skeletal parts of the Corvus corone, comprising the scapula, coracoid, humeri, ulnae, radii, both ulnar and radial carpals, the first phalanx of the minor digit, femora, and the second and third phalanges. Leg bones tend to be more frequently and intensively charred than wing bones. All thermal alterations are either brown or black burns. Long bones generally exhibit a brown discolouration from heat, with localised blackened areas, mainly on their epiphyses and along the shafts. While the majority of charred bones exhibit a single colouration from burning, instances of double-coloured charring have also been observed.

The experimentally replicated flake used in the processing of the two uncooked bird specimens, Streptopelia decaocto and Corvus corone, shows micro- and macroscopic recognisable use-wear typical of cutting up meat in the scope of butchering. Use-wear traces are tenuous, which is consistent to the working of a light butchery and over a short time. The set of use-wear features observed are similar to those mentioned by other authors on experimental pieces used in experimental butchery (Semenov, 1964; Keeley, 1980; Plisson, 1985; Gonzales Urquijo and Ibanez Estevez, 1994; Claud et al., 2019a; Costamagno et al., 2019).

Particularly noteworthy is the presence, on both sides, of the used edge of small isolated scars. These are “half-moon” shaped scars distributed along the edge and associated with a reticular shaped polish that can be observed at low and high magnifications. The edge removals result from the contact between the flake and the fibrous textures of avian muscle tissue that occasionally touched more resistant material, such as bone or cartilage (Figure 3).

No striations nor any edge rounding is observed. Edge rounding is usually associated with skin processing rather than with meat cutting (Keeley, 1980; Gonzales Urquijo and Ibanez Estevez, 1994).