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As an island continent, Australia has a vast and varied coastline (Figure 1). Over 85% of the nation's 24 million people live within 50 km of its 47,000-km coast, particularly concentrated along the east coast in major cities like Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and the Gold Coast, and larger regional coastal towns. The coastline is a mix of sandy beaches, rocky cliffs and mangrove or wetlands. Trade-offs between competing coastal uses in populated areas have typically favored intensive development, with associated degradation of coastal ecosystems (Clark and Johnston, 2016). There is extensive existing and high-value infrastructure either on the coastal margins or on low-lying coastal flood plains. This infrastructure includes over 810,000 km of roads, with a replacement value in excess of AUD$60 million. The value of railway lines at risk from coastal climate change impacts is estimated to be AUD$4.9–6.4 billion (DCCEE, 2011). The value of at-risk industrial and commercial infrastructure is over AUD$90 billion and residential infrastructure is over AUD$70 billion (DCCEE, 2011; Kirkpatrick, 2012).

The combination of coastal profiles and population density make Australia particularly vulnerable to the impacts of environmental change (Clark and Johnston, 2016). Beyond the obvious issues of coastal erosion and retreat, increases in the frequency and intensity of estuarine flooding of coastal floodplains is a major challenge (DCC, 2009; Clark and Johnston, 2016). Increased understanding of the likely impacts from sea level rise and extreme events has prompted a re-evaluation of coastal development patterns, at least in greenfield areas. However, the economic and cultural value of this existing legacy development constrains the potential for CZM approaches based on ecological resilience, because powerful political interests promote protection and armoring approaches over retreat.

Under Australia's federal system of government, the states have the legislative power over coastal management. There is no national CZM strategy or policy, and approaches to CZM are both fragmented and complex. Each coastal state and territory has a combination of laws and policies relating to coastal management, land use planning, conservation, fisheries, and catchment management, which all interact to influence coastal activities. Recent legal reforms have placed ecological resilience and climate change adaptation at the center of coastal management in Australia's two most populous states—New South Wales and Victoria^1,2, though the practical implications of these new objectives are yet to be felt.

While there are important legal differences across jurisdictions, the dominant model for dealing with new infrastructure and development involves mapping current and future coastal hazard areas over a range of timeframes and with differing assumptions about projected sea level rise, and then imposing limits on new development in areas identified as being at high risk. In all coastal states except New South Wales, the state government has adopted a sea level rise planning benchmark, which land use planning authorities are required to apply. The level varies across states but is generally set at about a 1.0 m rise above current sea levels by 2,100. New South Wales leaves the determination of what is an appropriate sea level rise planning benchmark to individual municipalities, which has resulted in significant legal variation depending on the property industry's influence and the local councilors' acceptance of climate change science within a specific municipality (McDonald, 2015).

States treat existing coastal development differently. Many coastal cities are already protected by seawalls, groins, and regular sand nourishment programs instituted after historical erosion events. A small number of regional coastal municipalities have introduced policies that require the removal of buildings affected by erosion in order to allow for coastal retreat (Foerster et al., 2015). In practice, however, the high value of beachfront properties has created intense political pressure in favor of protecting these exposed properties. At least one coastal authority has reversed its retreat policy, and governments mandate removal of structures only when sudden erosive events actually undercut houses so that they present an imminent threat to public safety (Macintosh et al., 2014; Foerster et al., 2015; McDonald, 2015). More often, media coverage of the homeowners' plight prompts emergency sandbagging and political promises of long-term protection. Together, these policies and reactions amount to a de facto engineering resilience approach. Indeed, in some cases, insurers have even overlooked policy exclusions for coastal hazards and paid out claims resulting from severe storm erosion, further entrenching an expectation that owners can repair or rebuild their properties in the same place.

Current engineering approaches also often squeeze coastal ecosystems. Coastal wetlands and heathlands have already experienced dramatic modification to allow for coastal development (McDonald and Foerster, 2016). Even when a particular location retains a ribbon of vegetation, the relevant laws and governments have made no allowance for natural inland migration in response to changed coastal conditions. In many cases, moreover, such migration would require removal of infrastructure on the landward side of such coastal reserves.

Of course, there are exceptions. For example, governments like the island state of Tasmania have acquired exposed properties when they come to market. This expanding government ownership creates greater flexibility when the time comes to implement a larger retreat strategy. Innovative approaches that align with a social-ecological resilience framing also include spatial planning designations of areas as “future coastal refugia” and limits on what development may occur on such sites (McDonald et al., 2018). So far, however, laws that promote an ecological resilience approach to CZM in Australia remain quite limited.

Finland is located on the northeastern bank of the Baltic Sea and has an extensive indented shoreline of 46,000 km (Granö et al., 1999). The shoreline varies considerably, ranging from cliffs and moraine shores to gravel and sandy beaches (Granö et al., 1999). About 32% of the total length of the shoreline is dedicated to housing development and ~1.5% to port and industrial development (Granö et al., 1999). The shoreline also hosts a series of nature conservation sites that are protected under European Union (EU) and domestic nature conservation law (Ministry of the Environment, 2006). Topographically, the coastal areas on the landward side of the UN Law of Sea Convention baseline are flat and prone to flooding (Figure 2). Roughly half of Finland's 5.5 million people live within 20 km of the sea shore (Ministry of the Environment, 2006).

Environmental change is driving sea level rise in the Baltic Sea. From a coastal management perspective, that sea level rise is partly offset by isostatic land uplift—i.e., the fact that the land is rising (Finnish Meteorological Institute, 2018). This mechanism is a legacy of the last ice age that ended roughly 11,500 years ago, when a thick glacier covered Finland (Finnish Meteorological Institute, 2018). Under the weight of this immense mass of ice, the ground condensed and sank. With the glacier largely gone, the ground is rising again; geologists expect the southern coast of Finland to rise about 40 cm and the northwestern coast about 90 cm over the next 100 years (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 2005; Finnish Meteorological Institute, 2018). This natural mechanism will partly shield the social-ecological systems along the Finnish coasts from the adverse effects of rising sea levels—almost entirely along the northwestern coast but only partially along the southern coast. The capital city of Helsinki, located in southern Finland, concluded that, currently, the land uplift counters sea-level rise almost entirely, but also that sea level rise will become the more dominant phenomenon toward the end of the century (City of Helsinki, 2008).

Despite the shielding effect of land uplift, the Finnish coasts are expected to suffer from increased coastal flooding as a result of rising average temperatures, increased precipitation, snowmelt, and extreme weather events (Ministry of the Environment, 2006) (Figure 2). Especially strong winds combined with meteorological low-pressure areas and coastal currents can cause abrupt and significant sea-level rise and flooding, with harm to infrastructure, utilities, housing, industry and ecosystems (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 2005).

Finland has adopted several national and municipal adaptation and coastal management strategies. These laws and policies seek, among other things, to minimize and adapt to the negative impacts of coastal flooding (e.g., Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 2005; Ministry of the Environment, 2006; City of Helsinki, 2008). These strategies emphasize the importance of planning, preparing for and adapting to coastal floods, and integrating adaptation strategies across sectors. The main mechanisms for preparing and adapting to coastal flooding are to: (1) steer housing and industrial development away from flood-prone areas; (2) build new and fortify existing flood defense structures; (3) increase the capacity of municipal sewage systems to handle increased urban run-off; (4) increase the percentage of vegetation zones and decrease the percentage of paved urban areas to improve the soil's capacity to absorb water; and (5) use existing wetlands for flood management (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 2005; Ministry of the Environment, 2006; City of Helsinki, 2008; Centre for Economic Development Transport the Environment in the Uudenmaa region, 2015). Thus, flood prevention policies in Finland already combine engineering resilience approaches—flood defense structures and sewage systems—with ecological resilience approaches, including development avoidance and the use of soil and wetlands to reduce flooding. Many of the ecological resilience approaches are, however, still at an experimental stage, and need to be upscaled in order to adapt to increasing coastal flooding toward the turn of the century.

Like Australia, CZM implementation in Finland is divided between several state and municipal actors and legal instruments. In flood protection, the two main instruments are land-use planning and flood risk management planning. As elsewhere, land-use planning's main objective is to steer the geographical location of housing, utilities, and industrial developments into preferred places. Land-use planning in Finland is divided between the state, regional, and municipal actors. These plans range in a hierarchical order from less to more specific: (1) national land-use objectives (national government); (2) regional plans (regional councils); (3) municipal master-plans; and (4) municipal detailed plans (Ministry of the Environment, 1999 p. 132). Regional and municipal plans are especially important in steering new housing and industrial development away from flood-prone areas (Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 2005; Ministry of the Environment, 2006).

Flood risk management planning is based on the EU Floods³. Such planning is science-based and incorporates: (1) an assessment of the likelihood of floods; (2) societal flood preparedness; and (3) societal recovery after a flood (Finnish Environment Institute, 2013). The main idea in flood management planning is that no new housing and industrial development should be allowed in flood-risk areas. These areas are mapped under the flood management planning regime, the results of which must be considered in planning and permitting new residential and industrial development. Flood management planning integrates the most up-to-date climate and flood models into land-use planning and other government and municipal actions. In the capital area of Helsinki, for instance, most flood-management measures planned and new building permits issued are based on flooding levels that occur, in statistical terms, every 250 years (Centre for Economic Development Transport the Environment in the Uudenmaa region, 2015). Translated into current mean water levels, this safety margin allows new infrastructure to cope with sea level rise of 0.87 m, or 34.25 inches (Centre for Economic Development Transport the Environment in the Uudenmaa region, 2015).

Nature conservation also plays a vital role in Finland's CZM. Traditionally, all nature conservation strategies relied on a static approach seeking to shield ecosystems from change (Aapala et al., 2017). This strategy is becoming increasingly problematic in light of ongoing environmental change, and new approaches are needed. Current research emphasizes the need for “climate smart conservation,” which evaluates the impact of environmental change on protected species and areas and then adapts protective measures accordingly (Aapala et al., 2017). This approach has yet to become mainstream in either EU/Finnish nature conservation in general or CZM specifically. Nevertheless, the identification of best practices for more ecologically resilient nature conservation policies is currently underway (Aapala et al., 2017).

In sum, Finland's adaptation strategies and coastal management have relied on the natural land uplift that has until recently compensated for all or most of sea level rise, as well as some of the negative impacts of coastal flooding. As this natural benefit becomes increasingly less effective, however, Finland is developing more active measures that span the engineering and ecological resilience spectrum to deal with environmental change. Engineering resilience is present in the state and municipal strategies and plans to build new and fortify existing coastal flood protection infrastructure, as well as in efforts to increase the capacity of municipal drainage systems to deal with increased precipitation and urban runoff. In addition, current nature conservation policies and laws are based on an engineering approach because they seek to shield protected areas and species from any adverse impacts from climate change.

Ecological resilience approaches are most visible in policies to reduce the percentage of urban paved areas and to promote nature-based solutions, such as using existing wetlands to help manage floods. Steering new development away from flood-prone areas can also be considered an ecological resilience approach because it allows the natural coastal environment to deal with and adapt to sea level rise and coastal flooding. However, this strategy is often not available in developed areas, because existing housing and industrial permits commonly enjoy legal finality and cannot be re-evaluated or modified in light of new scientific knowledge about sea level rise and flood risks. This remains one of the most pressing challenges for shifting existing infrastructure onto a more climate resilient path.

A delta region located in the northwest of continental Europe, 18% of the Netherlands' territory (41,526 km²) is covered by water (Van de Ven, 2003). Over 35% of the country, including 65% of its population (of a total of 17,358,662) and invested capital (GNP of roughly $740 billion) is currently flood prone, with about one-third of these areas already situated below sea level (Van Rijswick and Havekes, 2012; also see Figure 3). As a result of a centuries-long struggle with water, a highly dedicated and technocratic flood risk governance structure developed in the Netherlands (Kaufmann et al., 2016), testifying to a deeply engrained, and prevailing cultural/political norm to prevent the hinterland from flooding while maximizing socioeconomic development and habitability of the land (Van Rijswick and Havekes, 2012). In practice, this norm requires the nearly constant drainage of over 3,000 polders and the maintenance of nearly 4,000 km of primary flood defense structures, including the coastal flood defense system.

Sea level rise will strain this system, but fundamental changes in law and policy are unlikely in the short term. Recent estimates indicate that sea level will rise 1.8–2.0 mm per year on average, resulting into a total of 25–80 cm by 2,085 (Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI), 2015). In contrast to Finland, moreover, land subsidence—resulting mostly from peat land compaction in the western parts of the country—is making the Netherlands' sea level rise problem even worse, although regional estimates differ considerably (Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI), 2015). The effects of climate change stress the current system and might eventually force toward more radical strategies such as large-scale relocations, but the Dutch flood defense strategy will continue to ground future flood risk governance in the Netherlands (Gilissen, 2015; Kaufmann et al., 2016; Delta Program, 2019).

The 523-km-long Dutch coastline stretches from the southwestern peninsulas (Scheldt estuary/Rhine-Meuse delta) to the Wadden Islands/Wadden Sea Region in the north and the Ems-Dollard estuary in the northeast (Figure 3). Although this coastline consists mainly of a nearly continuous stretch of sandy beaches and sand dunes, it also incorporates constructed flood defense infrastructure, such as the world-famous Delta Works (mostly in south-western delta but also including the Afsluitdijk) and industrial areas/sea ports, such as Rotterdam, Vlissingen, Den Helder, and Delfzijl. Coastal towns that are home to a flourishing tourism and recreational sector also dots the Dutch coast. The Dutch government has designated large parts of the coastal system as protected areas—Natura 2000 Areas and/or Ecological Main Corridors—under EU and domestic nature conservation law (Backes et al., 2017). Moreover, the Wadden Sea Region in the north of the country is one of the largest protected wetland areas in the world and has been designated as both a Natura 2000 Area and a UNCESCO World Heritage site.

As noted, the Dutch coastline plays an essential role in preventing the hinterland from flooding and, given its sandy nature, forms a particular domain within the Dutch flood risk governance structure (Van Rijswick and Havekes, 2012). Focusing on the sandy parts of the Dutch coastline, both flood defense and environmental protection are key components of Dutch CZM. Moreover, since the early 1990s, so-called “dynamic management” has been a key concept in Dutch CZM (Stronkhorst et al., 2018). The Dutch Technical Advisory Committee for Flood Defense defined “dynamic coastal zone management” as “managing the coast in such a way that natural processes, whether stimulated or not, can take place undisturbed as far as possible, as long as the safety of the inland area is ensured” (De Jong et al., 2014). The main objective of dynamic CZM is to prevent sand dune systems from eroding further and moving inland, thus maintaining a fixed coastline (CPD, 1990; see also https://www.rijkswaterstaat.nl/kaarten/kustlijnkaart.aspx). Under Article 2.7 of the Dutch Water Act of 2009, Rijkswaterstaat, the Dutch Central Government's Water Management Agency, achieves this stabilization where possible through flexible mechanisms to foster continued ecological integrity, including coastal ecosystem preservation, the maintenance of specific functions, and species protection based on EU/domestic nature conservation law (De Jong et al., 2014). Rijkswaterstaat's most common coastal management techniques is near-shore sand nourishment, a so-called “soft engineering” approach, also dubbed a “Building with Nature” approach (Van Slobbe et al., 2013; De Vriend et al., 2015). Through this technique, large amounts of sand are pumped or transported to the shallow waters adjacent to the coast, allowing natural processes (mainly tides, waves, and wind) to gradually transport the sand landward, where it can elevate beaches, stabilize dunes, and, where needed, restore eroded sites and reverse related ecological degradation (Arens and Wiersma, 1994; De Ruig and Hillen, 1997; Van Dalfsen and Aarninkhof, 2009; Stive et al., 2013; De Jong et al., 2014). Dynamic CZM thus strategically aims to create a robust and resilient coastline and dune system that has the capacity to recover from erosion and related damage after storms and storm surges. Thus, the Netherlands pursues its overall engineering resilience goal through a generally effective and efficient strategy that blends engineering and ecological resilience approaches by spurring natural sand replenishment.

Nevertheless, overall, the Netherlands strives to keep its coastline and dune system stable and resistant to natural evolution, an inherently engineering resilience approach to CZM. Indeed, many policy documents use the term “veerkracht” (resilience) to refer to the coast's ability to bounce back to the status quo. In addition, this engineering resilience approach will not be ending any time soon: with a predicted sea level rise of 0.25–0.80 m by 2085 (Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI), 2015), the Dutch long-term (2,100) adaptation plan calls for intensified sand supplementation (Van Rijswick and Havekes, 2012; Delta Program, 2019), and the first pilot projects have already started (e.g., Project “Sand Motor”; De Schipper et al., 2016).

Moreover, hard engineering approaches remain important backstops to sand supplementation as sand supplementation does not always work to provide the legally required level of flood protection at some locations. These are the so-called “weak links” in the Dutch coastal defense system. At these locations, the relevant regional water management authorities have implemented additional or alternative measures to meet the legal security standards for “primary flood defense structures” (Article 2.4 of the Dutch Water Act 2009), such as building concrete constructions in dunes (Gilissen et al., 2010). In other words, where naturally driven processes fall short of meeting Dutch CZM goals, hard engineering remains a reliable solution, at least in the short to medium term.

Apart from flood protection, dynamic CZM through sand supplementation and other supportive measures (e.g., opening the Haringvliet sluices and flooding the Hedwigepolder) can be beneficial for environmental protection, contributing to the Dutch coast's and hinterland's ecological potential. Seven habitat types are present along the Dutch coast, and each is home to many protected and common species (http://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/). As noted, most of these areas are protected under EU and Dutch nature conservation law, which means that the Dutch government must preserve or improve their ecological values (Backes et al., 2017). However, Dutch (and EU) ecological policies have tended to emphasize ecological preservation and focus on saving specific species and ecological statuses, leaving little room for these systems to expand or transform. Thus, even though the Netherlands uses processes such as sand distribution to promote ecological function in large parts of its ecologically relevant coastal zones, the applied strategies still primarily embody an engineering resilience approach.

Australia, Finland, and the Netherlands are developed nations, and they all have significant financial and infrastructure investments in their coastal zones. In addition, each nation has already significantly altered large swaths of its coastal ecosystems, losing considerable ecosystem function to development. As might be expected, the legal and policy framework of each country favors an engineering resilience approach to CZM that prioritizes the preservation of expensive and important coastal infrastructure, although each nation has also grafted on ecological preservation considerations pursuant to state (Australia), national, and EU (Finland and the Netherlands) law.

As such, the most important finding of this preliminary study is that, despite deep and pervasive historical legal and policy commitments to an engineering resilience approach to CZM, Australia, Finland, and the Netherlands each show signs of an emerging ecological resilience perspective. In Australia and Finland, both countries that still have relatively large amounts of space, this emergence primarily has taken the initial form of steering new development away from the coast, reducing future hardening of the coastal zone. The Netherlands, lacking this spatial luxury, has in some senses been far more creative in blending its engineering and ecological resilience perspectives.

Australian settlement consists of concentrated coastal development in urban areas. Law and policy in smaller coastal urban areas purport to favor a coastal retreat strategy, but in practice to date the overall emphasis continues to be on protecting and armoring shoreline infrastructure. This political reality constrains Australian CZM into an engineering resilience approach, at least in its highly urbanized areas. Property owners expect that they will be able to rebuild in the coastal zone after erosion or storm damage, which reflects an engineering resilience norm that seeks to have coastal communities bounce back to how they were before a disaster. With sea level rise and projections of more intense storm events, however, Australia will inevitably have to alter its approach to CZM, and some signs of this needed shift in CZM approach are appearing in New South Wales and Victorian state legislation and the approaches of smaller municipalities. Thus, at least some coastal managers in Australia appear to be adopting a perspective that acknowledges the dynamic nature of social-ecological systems, a nascent ecological resilience approach to CZM.

In Finland, CZM focuses on land use and flood risk planning that also has its roots in an engineering resilience approach. Government officials generally cannot re-evaluate existing development in coastal zones in light of new information (legal finality). Thus, current CZM in Finland leaves little room for adaptation to rising sea levels and flooding in developed areas; as a result, CZM instead must rely on coastal armoring to protect existing structures. Even so, as in Australia, there are signs that social-ecological resilience is seeping into Finland's CZM. Laws restrict new development in coastal zones, resulting in most new development occurring inland and freeing undeveloped coastal areas to adapt to changing conditions. Finland is also experimenting with nature-based solutions, such as using existing wetlands for flood protection, and with increasing the amount of unpaved coastal urban areas, again strengthening the ability of coastal areas to adapt to changing conditions, such as increased flood risk.

The Netherlands literally has the least space of the three nations studies to absorb change and to adapt to changing conditions, as well as the strongest absolute social need to preserve coastal stability. Because ~65% of the country's population already resides in flood prone areas, with a significant percentage of the country already below sea level, Dutch CZM is, unsurprisingly, characterized by engineered flood defenses of dikes and canals combined with large protected coastal areas designed to “freeze” the coastal system in a static state. This quintessentially engineering resilience approach to dealing with coastal system dynamics has been baked into Dutch culture and law for centuries.

Even in the Netherlands, however, ecological resilience approaches are emerging, albeit always subordinate to the overarching goal of coastal stability, an approach that some researchers have dubbed “Building with Nature” (Van Slobbe et al., 2013; De Vriend et al., 2015). Natural features such as sand dunes and beaches are legally recognized components of flood protection, meaning that Dutch CZM law and policy recognize the important ecosystem services that these features provide. Moreover, protecting and building up beaches and sand dunes is critical to the nation's overall CZM strategy. The “soft engineering” technique of sand distribution uses natural processes to ensure that these coastal features and their associated ecosystems and ecosystem services remain intact and well-functioning. In addition, recently there have been efforts to better protect and construct wetlands in order to supplement the system of dikes and pumps that keeps the country dry, hinting that the ecological resilience approach to flood protection is expanding in the Netherlands.

Beyond their individual trajectories, these three nations' approaches to CZM also suggest that the initial binary that this article proposed, contrasting an engineering resilience approach and an ecological resilience approach to CZM, in fact represents less of a dichotomy for coastal law and policy than a malleable ensemble of tools and strategies. In other words, the two approaches to CZM are not (entirely) mutually exclusive, and legal evolution can allow for the progressive emergence of an ecological resilience approach (see also Cheong et al., 2013). That full-scale legal revolution might not be necessary before a nation can implement the more adaptive approaches to CZM that are increasingly necessary in a changing world is an important finding in and of itself for legislatures and other policymakers (Garmestani et al., 2019).

However, the analysis of these three countries also suggests that legal and policy options for CZM will always be constrained by the physical realities of a particular coastal nation. The fact that sea-level rise is not a significant concern for large stretches of Finland's coast effectively gives Finland far more flexibility in its CZM approach than either Australia or the Netherlands will be able to tolerate. Essentially, climate change imposes less pressure on Finland to evolve its laws to an ecological resilience approach than it imposes on the Netherlands or, at the end of this extreme, disappearing Pacific island nations, simply because Finland's land mass is still responding to the retreat of ice-age glaciers.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.